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Introduction
Migrant labour constitutes a significant portion of India's workforce — estimated at 50–100 million inter-state and 200+ million intra-state migrants. They form the backbone of construction, manufacturing, textiles, agriculture, domestic work, and service industries in urban and semi-urban areas. The COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdown (March 2020) exposed the extreme vulnerability of migrant workers, triggering one of the largest reverse migrations since Partition. Despite their economic contribution, migrant workers face systemic deprivation — lack of housing, social security, healthcare, and education for their children.
Magnitude of Migration in India
Key Statistics (Census 2011 + NSSO)
Metric Value Total migrants ~450 million (37% of population) Inter-state migrants ~60 million Intra-state migrants ~390 million Rural-to-urban migrants ~80 million Labour migrants (estimated) 50–100 million Circular migrants 30–40 million Female migrants ~70% (mostly marriage-related) Male migrants (economic) ~200 million
Major Source and Destination States
Source States Destination States Key Sectors
Uttar Pradesh Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab Construction, manufacturing, transport Bihar Delhi, Punjab, West Bengal, Maharashtra Construction, farming, factories Jharkhand West Bengal, Odisha, Delhi Mining, construction Odisha Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana Construction, textile Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi Farming, factories Rajasthan Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab Construction, textile West Bengal Assam, Delhi, Maharashtra Construction, tea gardens Chhattisgarh Gujarat, Maharashtra Steel, construction
Reasons for Migration Push Factors Pull Factors Lack of local employment Higher wages in destination Low agricultural productivity 24x7 cities (factories, services) Landlessness or marginal holdings Better education/healthcare Caste/social discrimination Aspiration for urban lifestyle Debt and distress Relatives already in cities Climate shocks (droughts, floods) Construction and infrastructure boom Lack of industrialisation Gig economy (Zomato, Swiggy, Uber)
Issues and Vulnerabilities Faced by Migrant Workers
Legal and Institutional Gaps Issue Details Lack of Registration Only 15–20% of migrant workers registered under any scheme No Portability of Ration NFSA (National Food Security Act) linked to home state (One Nation One Ration Card solved this partially) Absence from Electoral Rolls Cannot vote at work location; lose political voice Labour Law Gaps Unorganised workers excluded from many protections Contractors' Exploitation Middlemen (thekedars) charge commissions, withhold wages No Written Contracts Oral agreements — no legal recourse for wage theft
Social and Working Conditions Issue Details Housing Overcrowded slums, labour camps, open spaces, construction sites Health No access to public health facilities (ration card linked); high disease burden Child Labour Children accompany parents; many work instead of attending school Education Children's schooling disrupted by circular migration Safety Workplace accidents (construction); no compensation Gender Vulnerability Migrant women face sexual harassment, lack of maternity benefits Social Exclusion Separate from destination community; language/ cultural barriers
The COVID-19 Crisis (2020) Problem Description Sudden Lockdown 45 million migrants stranded with hours' notice Loss of Livelihood Complete income loss overnight Food Insecurity No ration access at work location Reverse Migration Millions walked hundreds of km to home states (over 100 deaths) Rehabilitation Shramik Special trains (May 2020) — 4,500+ trains carried ~64 lakh migrants Post-COVID Impact Many did not return to cities; some sectors suffered labour shortages
Government Schemes and Welfare Measures
One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC)
Launched: 2020 (fully implemented by 2023).Mechanism: Interstate portability of NFSA ration through biometric authentication.Coverage: 80+ crore beneficiaries covered across all states.Impact: Migrant workers can now access subsidised food grains at any Fair Price Shop in India.
e-Shram Portal (2021)
Purpose: National database of unorganised workers.Registration: 300+ million workers registered.Benefits: Accidental insurance cover (₹2 lakh under PM Suraksha Bima Yojana), direct benefit transfers.Limitations: Not linked to other welfare schemes; no job matching.
Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act (1979, replaced by OSH Code 2020) Provision OSH Code 2020 Registration Mandatory for establishments employing migrant workers Wage Parity Equal wages for migrant and local workers Travel Allowance Annual return fare to home Accommodation Suitable housing near workplace Medical Facilities First aid, health check-ups Absconding Report Contractor cannot file false absconding reports
Other Initiatives Initiative Purpose Status PMAY-Urban Rental housing component for migrants Under PMAY-U 2.0 Building and Other Construction Workers (BoCW) Cess 1% cess on construction cost for worker welfare Underutilised (~₹50,000 crore unspent) National Health Mission Mobile health units for migrant populations Limited coverage Samagra Shiksha Special training for migrant children Seasonal hostels MGNREGA Employment guarantee in source areas Acts as safety net State-Specific Portability Some states (TN, Karnataka) extend welfare to inter-state workers Uneven
International Labour Migration
Key Destinations Region Number Sector Gulf 7–8 million (UAE, Saudi, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain) Construction, domestic, services Southeast Asia 2–3 million (Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand) Plantation, manufacturing North America 2 million (USA, Canada) IT, healthcare, services Europe 1.5 million (UK, Germany, Italy) IT, nursing, hospitality
Emigration Act 1983 (to be replaced by Overseas Employment Bill)
e-Migrate System: Online registration for emigration clearance (12 ECR countries).Protection: Insurance, welfare fund, repatriation assistance.Issue: High number of distressed emigrants; illegal agents; wage fraud.
Way Forward Recommendation Action Universal Social Security Portable social security wallet for all migrant workers Digital ID for Migrants Aadhaar-linked migrant worker ID with scheme linkage Urban Housing Dormitory/hostel model in industrial clusters Skill Certification Recognition of prior learning (RPL) for migrant workers Data Collection Periodic Migration Survey (replacing Census-only data) Formalisation Mandatory written contracts and digital wage payments Political Inclusion Local body voting rights for migrants after 1 year residence Children's Education Seasonal schools, flexible curriculum, mobile schools
Conclusion Migrant labour is the invisible engine of India's urban economy, yet remains one of the most vulnerable sections of society. The COVID-19 pandemic was a stark reminder of their precarious existence. While initiatives like ONORC, e-Shram, and the OSH Code 2020 have improved the policy framework, implementation gaps remain vast. A comprehensive, rights-based approach — ensuring portability of social security, dignified housing, education for children, and voice in urban governance — is essential for inclusive development.
UPSC Relevance
GS Paper 1: Social issues — migration, urbanisationGS Paper 2: Government policies for vulnerable sectionsGS Paper 3: Employment, inclusive growthEssay: Migration and development