Indian Philosophy: Schools and Their Core Ideas

Introduction

Indian philosophy (Bhāratīya Darśana - 'ways of seeing') comprises a diverse body of intellectual traditions dating back to the Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE). These schools systematically examine epistemology (what is knowledge), metaphysics (what is reality), ethics (how to live), and soteriology (how to attain liberation). The classical framework classifies schools into Āstika (orthodox, accepting Vedic authority) and Nāstika (heterodox, rejecting Vedic authority).

The Āstika (Orthodox) Schools - Ṣaḍ-Darśana (Six Schools)

These six schools accept the Vedas as authoritative but hold divergent philosophical positions.

1. Sāṃkhya

• Founder: Sage Kapila (Sāṃkhya Kārikā by Īśvarakṛṣṇa is the earliest complete text)
• Core Idea: Radical dualism of Puruṣa (consciousness/pure awareness) and Prakṛti (primordial matter/nature). The material world evolves from Prakṛti through a process of 23 tattvas (principles). Liberation (kaivalya) is achieved by discriminating between Puruṣa and Prakṛti.
• Epistemology: Accepts three pramāṇas (valid means of knowledge) - pratyakṣa (perception), anumāna (inference), śabda (testimony).
• Influence: Foundation for Yoga philosophy and Vedantic discourse.

2. Yoga

• Founder: Patañjali (Yoga Sūtras, c. 2nd century BCE)
• Core Idea: Practical application of Sāṃkhya metaphysics. Liberation achieved through Aṣṭāṅga Yoga (eight limbs): Yama...