Trap: Confusing the Ashta Pradhan (8 ministers) with the Peshwa's later role. Under Shivaji, the Peshwa was ONE of the eight ministers (Mukhya Pradhan). Later, the Peshwa became the de facto hereditary head of state.
Most confused: Chauth (25% of revenue as protection tax) vs Sardeshmukhi (10% additional levy as overlord claim). Chauth was collected from neighbouring territories; Sardeshmukhi was the Maratha claim as 'head of deshmukhs'.
Key anchor: The Confederacy structure (1761-1818) - four major houses (Bhonsle of Nagpur, Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Gaekwad of Baroda) plus the Peshwa at Pune as nominal head. This confederacy fragmented under British pressure.
Current affairs hook: The Maratha military architecture (forts, naval bases at Suvarnadurg, Vijaydurg) is being considered for UNESCO World Heritage serial nomination. The Indian Navy's INS Vikrant draws inspiration from Maratha naval strategy.
Mains hinge: Frame the Maratha Confederacy as a 'feudal federation' - decentralised military commands (Saranjams) with nominal allegiance to the Peshwa. Contrast with Mughal centralised Mansabdari. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) shattered central authority; the Anglo-Maratha Wars exploited the fragmentation.
Core Concept
The Maratha state evolved through three phases: Shivaji's Swarajya (1674-1680), the Peshwa era (1713-1761) of centralised expansion, and the Confederacy period (1761-1818) of decentralised power-sharing among Maratha chiefs.
Royal correspondence, records of daily proceedings
Sachiv (Surunavis)
Correspondence
Official communications, checking royal orders
Sumant (Dabir)
Foreign Affairs
Diplomacy, intelligence, external relations
Senapati (Sarnobat)
Commander-in-Chief
Military organisation, recruitment, training
Nyayadhish
Chief Justice
Civil and criminal justice
Panditrao
Ecclesiastical/Religious
Charities, temples, religious endowments
Key Features:
All ministers (except Nyayadhish and Panditrao) commanded troops in war
No minister was hereditary; appointed by the King
The Council was advisory; Shivaji retained final authority
No Wazir (Vizier) - unlike Mughal system, no single all-powerful minister
Revenue System
Land Revenue:
Survey-based assessment (Raja Thorale Rajamukhi)
State demand: 30-40% of gross produce (lower than Mughal 1/3 cash + cesses)
Payment in cash or kind; measurement by Kathi (measuring rod)
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (expansionist revenue):
Chauth: 25% of land revenue from neighbouring territories as 'protection tax' - the Marathas promised not to raid in return
Sardeshmukhi: Additional 10% levy claiming hereditary right as 'Sardeshmukh' (head of Deshmukhs) over the region
Collected from Mughal/Deccan Sultanate territories, not Swarajya
Legitimised by Mughal emperor in 1719 (Chauth/Sardeshmukhi of 6 Deccan provinces)
Military Organisation
Mavale infantry: Core force from Maval region - loyal, hardy, guerrilla-trained
Cavalry: Two types - Bargirs (state-equipped, regular) and Silhadars (self-equipped, irregular)
Forts: ~300 forts, each a self-sufficient administrative-military unit with Killedar (commander), Sabnis (accountant), Karkhanis (storekeeper)
Navy: Built by Shivaji; Kanhoji Angre (Sarkhel) made it dominant on Konkan coast. Warships: Ghurab, Galbat, Pal. Bases: Suvarnadurg, Vijaydurg, Khanderi, Underi.
Peshwa Era (1713-1761)
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20): Secured Chauth/Sardeshmukhi rights from Mughals (1719)
Baji Rao I (1720-40): Greatest Peshwa; "Ride to Delhi" strategy; expanded into Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb, 1740-61): Consolidation; Third Battle of Panipat (1761) - catastrophic defeat by Ahmad Shah Abdali
Maratha Confederacy (1761-1818)
Post-Panipat, central authority collapsed. Power devolved to four major houses:
House
Capital
Territory
Key Figures
Bhonsle
Nagpur
Central India, Odisha
Raghoji I, Mudhoji
Scindia
Gwalior
North India, Delhi
Mahadji, Daulat Rao
Holkar
Indore
Malwa, Rajputana
Ahilyabai, Yashwant Rao
Gaekwad
Baroda
Gujarat
Damaji, Sayaji Rao
Peshwa
Pune
Deccan (nominal head)
Madhav Rao, Narayan Rao, Baji Rao II
Saranjam System: Military chiefs granted land (Saranjam) for maintaining troops. Hereditary over time, weakening central control.
Anglo-Maratha Wars:
First (1775-82): Treaty of Salbai (1782) - status quo
Second (1803-05): Treaty of Bassein (1802) - Baji Rao II accepted Subsidiary Alliance; British gained Delhi
Third (1817-18): Peshwa abolished; Maratha states became princely states under British paramountcy
Key Facts
Shivaji crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad (1674) with Vedic rites
Ashta Pradhan: 8 ministers; Peshwa was ONE among equals under Shivaji
Saranjam: Land grant for military maintenance (became hereditary)
Previous Year Questions
Year
Stage
What was tested
2023
Prelims
Ashta Pradhan: Which minister handled foreign affairs? (Sumant/Dabir)
2022
Mains
"The Maratha Confederacy was a loose federation of military chiefs." Critically examine.
2021
Prelims
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were collected from: Mughal territories, not Swarajya.
2020
Mains
Assess the administrative system of Shivaji. How far was it influenced by Deccani and Mughal models?
2019
Prelims
Who was the Maratha admiral who controlled the Konkan coast? (Kanhoji Angre)
2018
Prelims
Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed by: Peshwa Baji Rao II.
2017
Mains
Why did the Marathas fail to fill the political vacuum after the decline of the Mughal Empire?
2016
Prelims
The 'Saranjam' system of the Marathas was similar to: Mughal Jagirdari.
Statement Elimination Guide
Correct: "Under Shivaji, the Peshwa was one of the Ashta Pradhan, not the supreme head." (Peshwa became hereditary head later)
False: "Chauth was a land tax collected from the Maratha homeland (Swarajya)." (Chauth was from neighbouring/enemy territories)
Trap: "The Maratha navy was built by the Peshwas." (False. Built by Shivaji; Kanhoji Angre expanded it under Shahu/Peshwas)
Correct: "Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy claiming the Maratha king as the hereditary Sardeshmukh."
False: "The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between Marathas and the British." (Fought against Ahmad Shah Abdali/Durrani)
Correct: "The Treaty of Bassein (1802) made the Peshwa a subsidiary ally of the British, leading to the Second Anglo-Maratha War."
Current Affairs Hook
The Maratha Military Architecture (12 forts including Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Sindhudurg, Vijaydurg) is on India's UNESCO Tentative List (2021) for World Heritage serial nomination. The Indian Navy's INS Vikrant (indigenous aircraft carrier, commissioned 2022) and the Maratha Light Infantry trace institutional lineage to Shivaji's military innovations. The Maharashtra government's 'Shivaji Memorial' projects (Arabian Sea statue, forts conservation) regularly feature in governance questions linking heritage conservation, tourism, and federalism.
Interlinkages
Polity (GS 2): Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley) vs Maratha Confederacy; federalism debates - Centre vs States mirrored in Peshwa vs Chiefs.
Economy (GS 3): Chauth/Sardeshmukhi as early 'protection money' / fiscal federalism; land revenue comparison with Mughal Zabti.
Internal Security (GS 3): Maratha guerrilla warfare (Ganimi Kava) - studied in counter-insurgency; fort-based defence in depth.
"Peshwa was the Prime Minister under Shivaji." Peshwa was ONE of eight ministers. The title 'Peshwa' means 'foremost/leader', but he was not a Wazir-equivalent under Shivaji.
"Chauth was 1/4 of produce." Chauth was 25% of land revenue (not produce) from territories OUTSIDE Swarajya.
"Marathas had a centralised empire like the Mughals." Post-1761, it was a Confederacy of semi-independent chiefs. Even under Peshwas, central control was military, not administrative.
"Saranjamdars were like Mughal Mansabdars." Saranjamdars had hereditary land grants for military service; Mansabdars had non-hereditary ranks with transferable Jagirs.
"Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought only against the Peshwa." The wars involved all major houses - Scindia, Bhonsle, Holkar fought the British independently.
Revision Snapshot
The Maratha state began as Shivaji's Swarajya with the Ashta Pradhan (8-minister council), Chauth/Sardeshmukhi expansionist revenue, and fort-centric guerrilla defence. Under Peshwas, it expanded northwards but central authority shattered at Panipat (1761). The Confederacy (Bhonsle, Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad + Peshwa) was a loose military federation exploited by the British through Subsidiary Alliances (Bassein 1802) and three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818). Key anchors: Ashta Pradhan composition, Chauth vs Sardeshmukhi distinction, Bargir vs Silhadar cavalry, Panipat as turning point, Confederacy structure.
Source Notes
Primary sources: Literary (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, Puranic, Sangam, Persian, foreign accounts), Archaeological (excavation reports, ASI publications), Numismatic (coin hoards, catalogues), Epigraphic (Inscriptions - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, South Indian Inscriptions)