Climate Change: India's Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies

[TOPIC CLASSIFICATION]

• Topic type: Climate Change / Environment
• PYQ frequency: High — appears every year in Prelims and Mains (GS-3)
• Exam stage: Prelims + Mains
• Primary GS paper: GS 3 (Environment — Climate Change)

[EXAMINER REASONING]

1. Trap: Confusing India's NDC targets (updated 2022 — 45% reduction in emission intensity of GDP by 2030 vs 2005, 50% cumulative electric power from non-fossil fuels by 2030) with the net-zero 2070 target (which is a longer-term aspiration, not an NDC). The NDCs are legally binding domestic commitments; the 2070 target is an intent.
2. Most confused: The difference between 'mitigation' (reducing greenhouse gas emissions — NAPCC missions, renewable energy targets) and 'adaptation' (adjusting to the effects of climate change — heat action plans, flood-resistant crops, coastal protection). India's climate strategy emphasises adaptation (given its vulnerability) but also contributes significantly to mitigation (renewable energy expansion).
3. Key anchor: India's climate stance is built on the principle of 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities' (CBDR-RC) under the UNFCCC. India argues that developed countries have historically emitted more CO2 and must take greater mitigation burden and provide climate finance.
4. Current affairs hook: India's G20 presidency's focus on climate finance and LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment); the COP26 (2021, Glasgow) and COP28 (2023, Dubai) outcomes; the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and its impact on India's exports; the 2025 extreme heatwave in India (multiple states declaring drought); and the updated NDCs under the 'Global Stocktake' process.
5. Mains hinge: Climate change answers should be structured around the 'Vulnerability-Mitigation-Adaptation-Finance' framework. Show that India's national interest lies in balancing development needs (poverty eradication, energy access) with climate action — 'climate justice' is the framing.

---

Core Concept

Climate change is the defining challenge of the 21st century, and India is at the centre of the global climate debate. India is the world's third-largest CO2 emitter (after China and the US), but its per-capita emissions (2.0 tonnes CO2 per person) are far below the global average (4.7 tonnes) and a fraction of the US (14.9 tonnes) and the EU (6.0 tonnes). India is also one of the most climate-vulnerable countries — the Global Climate Risk Index 2025 ranked India 7th among countries most affected by extreme weather events.

India's Climate Vulnerability

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report (2022-23) identified India as a 'climate change hotspot'. The specific vulnerabilities:

(1) Extreme Heat: India experienced its hottest year on record in 2024. The number of heatwave days has increased tenfold since 1960. In 2025, severe heatwaves affected 300+ million people across northern and central India. The IMD has expanded its heatwave early warning system to cover 400+ cities. Heat action plans have been implemented in 37 cities/cities but coverage remains inadequate.